10-09-2011, 10:39 PM
I have spend some time detailing a whole list of sources and illustrations to support my theory of the evolution of the Roman legion from maniple organization to cohort.
THE MANIPLE SYSTEM
I will start with the legion as organized during the 2nd Punic War period which probably carried over to a great extent until the reforms of Marius in 107-100 BC.
Start with the basic building block of the Legion. The Maniple (not century)
According to Polybius, after the levied men were separated into lines tribunes would next select ten officers for each of the hastati, principes and triarri. These men are called Prior Centurions, another ten are chosen, these are the Posterior Centurions. The ten formations for each of the three lines are called Maniples.
Polybius says this:
“It is natural that they should appoint two commanders for each maniple; for it being uncertain what may be the conduct of an officer or what may happen to him, and affairs of war not admitting of pretexts and excuses, they wish the maniple never to be without a leader and chief.” (6:24,7)
This line implies that maniples are the basic unit of the legion, not centuries. Battles are fought by maniples, not centuries. Only for administrative purpose at this point do centuries exist, mainly to make organization outside of battle easier, ie. less men for each centurion to command.
Next Polybius says “When both centurions are on the spot, the first elected commands the right half of the maniple and the second the left, but if both are not present the one who is commands the whole.” 6:24,8
I believe this implies where the centurions stood in relation to the formation. As I stated above, maniples were the battle formation, not centuries which few sources give account of them doing anything in battle, it’s always maniples (or cohorts later on).
“…placing the maniples closer together than was formerly the usage and making the depth of each many times exceed its front." Polybius, 3:113, Description of Maniples at Cannae
So when the Romans added additional manpower to the Hastati and Principe maniples they added depth with extra ranks because they knew it gave the maniples more hitting power. They evidently liked the idea of depth. Gave them staying power in the fight, allowed them to soak up casualties and replace them and gave them hitting power in the attack.
(see 1st Illustration. Not to scale)
Quincunx Formation for Battle
Both Polybius (6:9,7-9 & 3:113 among others) and Livy (Book 8:8 among others) agree that the maniples in each line had gaps/intervals. Many refer to it as the Quincunx formation.
Now the argument is on whether the Romans chose to close the gaps before battle and form one continuous battle line (articulated phalanx) or whether they chose to keep the gaps. I think there was no reason for Polybius and Livy to mention the intervals if they weren’t used for battle. The only mention of the lines ever closing are from Livy.
“When the triarii had admitted the hastati and principes through the intervals separating their companies they rose from their kneeling posture and instantly closing their companies up they blocked all passage through them and in one compact mass fell on the enemy as the last hope of the army.” (8,8 )
So if the hastati and principes were routed they bolt back through the gaps of the triarri who’d then closed the gaps and fight, giving time for the Hastati and Principe maniples to reorganize on their standards. They could do this by either moving the entire back three rows (posterior century) to the left or just doubling their files by extending prior century files outwards a few feet and the posterior rows moving along side of them.
So why Fight in Gaps?
To understand the usefulness of the maniple formation one first has to look at the enemy that Rome frequently encountered on a battlefield. Celts, Gauls, Africans, Greeks, Latin/Italians, Macedonians. All of these except many of the Latin/Italians generally fought in a shieldwall or phalanx or some kind. (Samnites are said to have fought in Maniple formation, probably were the Romans got the idea)
The phalanx can range from a simple overlapping of shields hedged with spears (Greek and Celtic) to a sophisticated Macedonian sarissa formation where the men must be extremely well drilled to perform it. But the key to both of these formations is that in order for them to be effective they must keep order. That means no one runs away and no one attacks forward. So the key to beating a phalanx is to break their formation. The Romans accomplish this in two ways with their maniple formation.
The key tactic of the Roman attack would have been the massed pilum volleys. Can’t be underestimated what this would do to an enemy formation. Even if most of the pilum didn’t punch through shields or bodies they would have caused some disorder within the phalanx ranks. Since there are 120 men in a Polybian described maniple, each carrying two pilum, that means that the maniple can throw about 240 pilum before they exhaust their supply. Since the maniples only cover a small front all of the javelins would be directed against those men in front and immediately to the sides of them.
Charging with Sword. Why did the Romans fight with swords? Because they are better in tight spots. Close with the enemy, get under his spear and attack him with sword while protecting yourself with a scutum. Don’t slash because the swords aren’t that well made and they might bend or break. Plus it exposes more of your body. A two inch stab might kill but that is in hind sight, piercing the pericardial sac might lead to an infection but it won’t kill immediately unless a major blood carrying artery or organ is pierced. Aim for exposed areas, arms, legs, faces, necks. Whatever flesh you see try to get at it.
So now the Hastati maniple has clashed with the phalanx, throw their initial volley of pilum, charged forward while the men in the side ranks continue throwing more pilum. Men in the back and center pass their extras to the men who need them. The men in the front ranks make contact with the shield wall and start hand to hand contact. Either way it won’t last too long. Casualty stats don’t lend to a long protracted fight, not enough people died in battles to believe that a unit stayed in constant contact with each other until so many people died that the finally cracked. More than likely if the initial assault failed to break the phalanx the Hastati would back off and retreat to lick their wounds while the second line of Principes move up and take their turn. When the Hastati is sufficiently ready they attack again. Attack, rest regroup and attack again. Think pistons in a car engine. Or a see saw.
This continues until one side generally breaks. Since fear is contagious the tide of men running would grow until one side generally broke completely. If it is the Romans they can always fall back on the triarri line (the true reserve) to reorganize. If that doesn’t work, survivors can gather in the camp which is not far and fortified.
[attachment=1883]maniple_2011-10-09.jpg[/attachment]
[attachment=1884]maniplevsmac.phalanx.jpg[/attachment]
THE MANIPLE SYSTEM
I will start with the legion as organized during the 2nd Punic War period which probably carried over to a great extent until the reforms of Marius in 107-100 BC.
Start with the basic building block of the Legion. The Maniple (not century)
According to Polybius, after the levied men were separated into lines tribunes would next select ten officers for each of the hastati, principes and triarri. These men are called Prior Centurions, another ten are chosen, these are the Posterior Centurions. The ten formations for each of the three lines are called Maniples.
Polybius says this:
“It is natural that they should appoint two commanders for each maniple; for it being uncertain what may be the conduct of an officer or what may happen to him, and affairs of war not admitting of pretexts and excuses, they wish the maniple never to be without a leader and chief.” (6:24,7)
This line implies that maniples are the basic unit of the legion, not centuries. Battles are fought by maniples, not centuries. Only for administrative purpose at this point do centuries exist, mainly to make organization outside of battle easier, ie. less men for each centurion to command.
Next Polybius says “When both centurions are on the spot, the first elected commands the right half of the maniple and the second the left, but if both are not present the one who is commands the whole.” 6:24,8
I believe this implies where the centurions stood in relation to the formation. As I stated above, maniples were the battle formation, not centuries which few sources give account of them doing anything in battle, it’s always maniples (or cohorts later on).
“…placing the maniples closer together than was formerly the usage and making the depth of each many times exceed its front." Polybius, 3:113, Description of Maniples at Cannae
So when the Romans added additional manpower to the Hastati and Principe maniples they added depth with extra ranks because they knew it gave the maniples more hitting power. They evidently liked the idea of depth. Gave them staying power in the fight, allowed them to soak up casualties and replace them and gave them hitting power in the attack.
(see 1st Illustration. Not to scale)
Quincunx Formation for Battle
Both Polybius (6:9,7-9 & 3:113 among others) and Livy (Book 8:8 among others) agree that the maniples in each line had gaps/intervals. Many refer to it as the Quincunx formation.
Now the argument is on whether the Romans chose to close the gaps before battle and form one continuous battle line (articulated phalanx) or whether they chose to keep the gaps. I think there was no reason for Polybius and Livy to mention the intervals if they weren’t used for battle. The only mention of the lines ever closing are from Livy.
“When the triarii had admitted the hastati and principes through the intervals separating their companies they rose from their kneeling posture and instantly closing their companies up they blocked all passage through them and in one compact mass fell on the enemy as the last hope of the army.” (8,8 )
So if the hastati and principes were routed they bolt back through the gaps of the triarri who’d then closed the gaps and fight, giving time for the Hastati and Principe maniples to reorganize on their standards. They could do this by either moving the entire back three rows (posterior century) to the left or just doubling their files by extending prior century files outwards a few feet and the posterior rows moving along side of them.
So why Fight in Gaps?
To understand the usefulness of the maniple formation one first has to look at the enemy that Rome frequently encountered on a battlefield. Celts, Gauls, Africans, Greeks, Latin/Italians, Macedonians. All of these except many of the Latin/Italians generally fought in a shieldwall or phalanx or some kind. (Samnites are said to have fought in Maniple formation, probably were the Romans got the idea)
The phalanx can range from a simple overlapping of shields hedged with spears (Greek and Celtic) to a sophisticated Macedonian sarissa formation where the men must be extremely well drilled to perform it. But the key to both of these formations is that in order for them to be effective they must keep order. That means no one runs away and no one attacks forward. So the key to beating a phalanx is to break their formation. The Romans accomplish this in two ways with their maniple formation.
The key tactic of the Roman attack would have been the massed pilum volleys. Can’t be underestimated what this would do to an enemy formation. Even if most of the pilum didn’t punch through shields or bodies they would have caused some disorder within the phalanx ranks. Since there are 120 men in a Polybian described maniple, each carrying two pilum, that means that the maniple can throw about 240 pilum before they exhaust their supply. Since the maniples only cover a small front all of the javelins would be directed against those men in front and immediately to the sides of them.
Charging with Sword. Why did the Romans fight with swords? Because they are better in tight spots. Close with the enemy, get under his spear and attack him with sword while protecting yourself with a scutum. Don’t slash because the swords aren’t that well made and they might bend or break. Plus it exposes more of your body. A two inch stab might kill but that is in hind sight, piercing the pericardial sac might lead to an infection but it won’t kill immediately unless a major blood carrying artery or organ is pierced. Aim for exposed areas, arms, legs, faces, necks. Whatever flesh you see try to get at it.
So now the Hastati maniple has clashed with the phalanx, throw their initial volley of pilum, charged forward while the men in the side ranks continue throwing more pilum. Men in the back and center pass their extras to the men who need them. The men in the front ranks make contact with the shield wall and start hand to hand contact. Either way it won’t last too long. Casualty stats don’t lend to a long protracted fight, not enough people died in battles to believe that a unit stayed in constant contact with each other until so many people died that the finally cracked. More than likely if the initial assault failed to break the phalanx the Hastati would back off and retreat to lick their wounds while the second line of Principes move up and take their turn. When the Hastati is sufficiently ready they attack again. Attack, rest regroup and attack again. Think pistons in a car engine. Or a see saw.
This continues until one side generally breaks. Since fear is contagious the tide of men running would grow until one side generally broke completely. If it is the Romans they can always fall back on the triarri line (the true reserve) to reorganize. If that doesn’t work, survivors can gather in the camp which is not far and fortified.
[attachment=1883]maniple_2011-10-09.jpg[/attachment]
[attachment=1884]maniplevsmac.phalanx.jpg[/attachment]
