Macedonian armour

[Dan Howard]

I've gone though some of the recent theads that skirt around this subject but can't find much direct info. Is there a general consensus on the body armour worn by the heavy infantry of Philip and Alexander before the Persian expedition? Linen has been assumed but that is disputed by the latest linothorax discussions. Leather scale has been found in some Macedonian tombs but I'm not sure of the dating of these. Are the helmets and greaves of common soldiers more likely to have been made of bronze or iron?

[MeinPanzer]

I've gone though some of the recent theads that skirt around this subject but can't find much direct info. Is there a general consensus on the body armour worn by the heavy infantry of Philip and Alexander before the Persian expedition? Linen has been assumed but that is disputed by the latest linothorax discussions. Leather scale has been found in some Macedonian tombs but I'm not sure of the dating of these. Are the helmets and greaves of common soldiers more likely to have been made of bronze or iron?

Before the expedition, there isn't a whole lot of evidence. I'm actually inclined to agree with Dio Cassius' assertion that Alexander's infantrymen wore linen armour, but likely later on, and I don't think that was all they wore, as it seems much likelier that soldiers before the expedition (and plenty during and after) wore leather cuirasses. I've not heard of leather scale being found in Macedonian tombs - do you have a reference for those finds? A bronze scale gorget was found at Derveni, but that's about it for finds of Macedonian scale as far as I am aware.

For helmets, like cuirasses, the use of iron didn't become more common until a few centuries later. Many of the infantrymen on the Alexander sarcophagus wear blue helmets, and though this colour has been interpreted as blue paint, it's clear from other contemporary Macedonian tomb paintings that blue was used to represent iron or silver. Iron helmets and cuirasses were almost certainly restricted in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC to the commanders and elite units of the army - only a handful of iron helmets have been found from this time period, and only 4 Hellenistic iron cuirasses are known: the one from Vergina, the very well-preserved find from Prodromi, and two finds from wealthy contemporary Sarmatian burials in the southern Urals (Prokhorovka and Berdyanskii). Greaves, I would guess, were still exclusively bronze in this period (the grave at Vergina which yielded an iron helmet and cuirass still had bronze greaves), and seem to have remained so at least down through the Hellenistic period.

[Paralus]

Before the expedition, there isn't a whole lot of evidence. I'm actually inclined to agree with Dio Cassius' assertion that Alexander's infantrymen wore linen armour, but likely later on, and I don't think that was all they wore, as it seems much likelier that soldiers before the expedition (and plenty during and after) wore leather cuirasses [...] Greaves, I would guess, were still exclusively bronze in this period (the grave at Vergina which yielded an iron helmet and cuirass still had bronze greaves), and seem to have remained so at least down through the Hellenistic period.

Based on the (in)famous notice in the Vulgate that Alexander ordered 25,000 cuirasses and burned the old, you'd think one or the other. I suppose - absolutely everything considered - that metal armour might be "burned" to remove organinc coverings or backings. That Philip or Alexander had the readies to supply 12,000 or more such in the years immediately prior to the invasion is unlikely given the source tradition of near bankruptcy.

Bronze greaves, with the pliability to bend about calf muscles, would seem logical.

Sparked from a discussion elsewhere, I'd be interested to know just how these troops coped with the harsh winters and high passes of "central Asia". Whilst I'd agree that "Western limbs" grown softer via modern comforts are not necessarily those of 2,300 years ago, how did the army cope with the Hindu Kush with simply a heavy cloak? I can imagine many a damaged leg and, even more so, feet.

[Archelaos]

Many of the infantrymen on the Alexander sarcophagus wear blue helmets, and though this colour has been interpreted as blue paint, it's clear from other contemporary Macedonian tomb paintings that blue was used to represent iron or silver. Iron helmets and cuirasses were almost certainly restricted in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC to the commanders and elite units of the army - only a handful of iron helmets have been found from this time period, and only 4 Hellenistic iron cuirasses are known: the one from Vergina, the very well-preserved find from Prodromi, and two finds from wealthy contemporary Sarmatian burials in the southern Urals (Prokhorovka and Berdyanskii).

Yes and no. I do not believe that blue colour on the sarcophagus is iron. In both Agios Athanasios and Lyson and Kallikles tombs iron elements are grey. (spearheads of "big" soldiers on façade of AA and nails from which pieces of equipment hang in L&K fresco). In main fresco on AA bluish colour is used for situla, most probably silver, but on the same fresco helmets are shown painted red and purple. This, in my opinion, suggest that helmets (of guard units obviously) were painted, and if they could be painted red or purple, blue is also possible. But there is no reason it can't be silver.

It seems that putting helmets in tombs was unpopular in Macedonia. There are unlooted tombs, like Derveni, where traces of armour (gold attachments) and greaves were found but no signs of helmets.

[MeinPanzer]

Yes and no. I do not believe that blue colour on the sarcophagus is iron. In both Agios Athanasios and Lyson and Kallikles tombs iron elements are grey. (spearheads of "big" soldiers on façade of AA and nails from which pieces of equipment hang in L&K fresco). In main fresco on AA bluish colour is used for situla, most probably silver, but on the same fresco helmets are shown painted red and purple. This, in my opinion, suggest that helmets (of guard units obviously) were painted, and if they could be painted red or purple, blue is also possible. But there is no reason it can't be silver.

The spearheads of the two large guardsmen are grey, but the spearheads of the smaller figures are blue on the AA fresco, just like the situla carried in the procession scene. Helmets certainly could be painted, I don't deny that, but it seems like many more blue helmets are found on the Alexander sarcophagus than other colours seen elsewhere, and it seems likeliest to me that they are iron.

It seems that putting helmets in tombs was unpopular in Macedonia. There are unlooted tombs, like Derveni, where traces of armour (gold attachments) and greaves were found but no signs of helmets.

At AA, many very oxidized fragments of iron armour were found which, AFAIK, are currently being restored, and so a helmet could have been included in these finds, and likewise an iron helmet was found at Marvinci in upper Macedonia, which shows that they were probably included fairly often in rich burials.

[Dan Howard]

I've not heard of leather scale being found in Macedonian tombs - do you have a reference for those finds? A bronze scale gorget was found at Derveni, but that's about it for finds of Macedonian scale as far as I am aware.

This must be what I'm misremembering.

At AA, many very oxidized fragments of iron armour were found which, AFAIK, are currently being restored, and so a helmet could have been included in these finds

Are these fragments likely to include pieces of body armour or greaves? Is the context of the find relevant to a common soldier or a more wealthy one?

[MeinPanzer]

Are these fragments likely to include pieces of body armour or greaves? Is the context of the find relevant to a common soldier or a more wealthy one?

Body armour seems very likely, but I highly doubt that any iron greaves were found - I don't think we have any evidence of iron greaves in use until centuries later. The context of the find is definitely a wealthy one, as it was a monumental Macedonian tomb with a beautifully painted facade in the same tradition as the royal tombs at Vergina. It seems likely that the individual buried inside was a high officer of some kind, though, frustratingly, not one of the numerous soldiers painted on the facade in intricate detail wear metal armour!

[rocktupac]

I've gone though some of the recent theads that skirt around this subject but can't find much direct info. Is there a general consensus on the body armour worn by the heavy infantry of Philip and Alexander before the Persian expedition? Linen has been assumed but that is disputed by the latest linothorax discussions. Leather scale has been found in some Macedonian tombs but I'm not sure of the dating of these. Are the helmets and greaves of common soldiers more likely to have been made of bronze or iron?

I did a quick search in the extant sources on Alexander and I found nothing which would suggest what type of armor the Macedonians wore, except for the bit in Plutarch where Alexander is said to have worn a linen breastplate before Gaugamela (Alex. 32.8 ). There is also the passage in Curtius that mentions Alexander burning the old, worn out suits of armor while in India (9.3.22), but this is open to interpretation and does not specify the type of armor that was burned. Other than that, from what I found, there is no indication from the five Alexander sources.

By "heavy infantry" do you mean the sarissa-wielding phalangites? At first read this is what I assumed you meant. If that is the case then it seems like the general consensus is that the phalangite wore a helmet, shield, greaves and no breastplate. Usually the passage from Polyaenus, which states that Philip often drilled his men and had them carry "their helmets, shields, greaves, and spears" (Strat. 4.2.10), and the Amphipolis Decree (which both omit the mention of any breastplates) are given as evidence for the absence of a breastplate.

[MeinPanzer]

By "heavy infantry" do you mean the sarissa-wielding phalangites? At first read this is what I assumed you meant. If that is the case then it seems like the general consensus is that the phalangite wore a helmet, shield, greaves and no breastplate. Usually the passage from Polyaenus, which states that Philip often drilled his men and had them carry "their helmets, shields, greaves, and spears" (Strat. 4.2.10), and the Amphipolis Decree (which both omit the mention of any breastplates) are given as evidence for the absence of a breastplate.

The kotthubos mentioned in connection with phalangites in the Amphipolis decree is generally thought to refer to a type of cuirass worn by the rank and file, while the officers wear thorakes, likely referring to metal cuirasses.

[Komanos]

The addition of the kotthubos may be a difference between the phalanx of the late Macedonian kingdom and the phalanx of Philip II.

[rocktupac]

The kotthubos mentioned in connection with phalangites in the Amphipolis decree is generally thought to refer to a type of cuirass worn by the rank and file, while the officers wear thorakes, likely referring to metal cuirasses.

I've often wondered what that might be. I'm still not entirely convinced as to what is it. Since it is a hapax legomenon (or so I believe), and I'm guessing it is a Macedonian term for a type of armor, perhaps it could be a common Macedonian name for a type of armor that has come down to us only in the Amphipolis Decree. I'm sure this has been put forth elsewhere, but this, in my opinion, is the most likely explanation. Anyone else?

[PMBardunias]

On a related note, What is a hemithorax? What half is it, the front? Upper? Lower? Any images?

[Komanos]

The hemithorakion is almost always considered to be breastplate that covers only the front of the body, though I know of nothing like that from a Hellenistic context. I suppose one could look at some Italic examples to find parallels. Polyaenus 4.3.13 makes it pretty clear that it covered the front part of the body. Looking at the CAH, apparently it was invented (or put into common use at least) by Jason king of Thessaly, in the early 4th century.

The interesting thing with the kotthubos (which most people believe is related to an Egyptian corselet, the kossumbos) and with names for armor in general is that we get a fair number of hapax legomena that are hard to identify and another set of extremely popular words that are practically impossible to identify more completely. Papyri from Ptolemaic Egypt describe several types of armor for which we have no parallels anywhere else. One leather cuirass (literally a cowskin armor) may be the equivalent of the kotthubos, or or the kotthubos may be some form of linen armor, as the kossumbos may have been. The whole thing is rather speculative. What I find more interesting is that the stele seems to work toward a standardization of equipment and equipment terminology.

[PMBardunias]

Is this the same word as Kotthumbos:

??????-? , h(, = Att. ????????, Poll.2.30 (
A. [select] v.l. ?????????, ????????).
2. [select] = ?????????, shepherd's coat, D.Chr.72.1, EM311.5, cf. 349.45:—written ???????? or ????????? , Hsch.

[Macedon]

It would be very interesting to read the Greek text of the Macedonian Polyaenus,

In his 13th stratagem of Alexander (IV.3.13)he states :

"The Macedonians having fled from the field, Alexander changed the coat of mail into a breast-plate: which was a protection to them, as long as they boldly faced the enemy: but if they fled, they exposed to the foe their naked backs. This had such an effect: that they never afterwards fled; but, if they were overpowered, always retreated in good order."

In Greek it says :

"Alexandros imithorakia tois stratiotais anti thorakwn edoke"

I always regarded this particular extract as the only allusion of a possible defeat of Alexander, but it is also interesting in terms of this discussion...