The first uses of the Testudo formation

[M. Caecilius]

I have been trying to find out early references to the Testudo formation, and located a passage in Livy 44.9.6-10, describing the capture of Heraklion in Macedon in 169 B.C. during the Third Macedonic War.

"As one of these performances [at the public games], groups of about sixty youths [Schlesinger annotates that this is a rough equivalent of a century]... after passing through various evolutions in this manoeuvre ... would form in ranks, with shields close-set over their heads, the front rank erect, the second somewhat stooped, the third and fourth more so, and the rear rank down on their knees. so that they would form a 'tortoise' sloped like the roof of a house. Next two armed men, seperated by an interval of some fifty feet, would rush out, feint at each other, and mount from bottom to top of the 'tortoise' over the close-set shields. They would then act as if skirmishing at the outer edges of the 'tortoise'... and leap about just as if they were on solid ground." (Livy, loc. cit., translation A.C. Schlesinger, Loeb Edition)

Livy describes this exercise as more suited to the games than to the military exercise - an equivalent of the later (?) hippika gymnasia? - being used at the siege of Heraklion by forming a living siege ramp, though the formation was modified to protect the flanks and front rank (cf. Polybius 28.11).

My questions on this text would be as follows:

1) Did I miss any earlier references to a tortoise - as opposed to simply interlocking shields? Plutarch 10.13.2 describes three shieldbearers covering Scipio with their shields on the entire surface, and later describes the Romans approaching enemy walls "under cover of their shields" (10.14.12), but I fear that seeing a testudo of any kind in these description is putting some strain on the evidence... Were the soldiers at Heraklion really inovating by using a training technique never intended for more than show to actual combat?

2) Has anyone in re-enactment tried the testudo described by Livy - and the difficulty of moving on it? Not necessarily the siege version, but the parade-version sounds rather interesting by itself. I had heard about using the tortoise as a living ramp before in secondary literature (usually, if I recall, quickly dismissed), but could not find any other discussion on this board or elsewhere. How much strain would there be on the man in the tortoise, and how slippery would it be for the attackers - on the show version, obviously men of some skil at balancing.

The same sloping form (as opposed to the square tortoise) seems to have been used by Antony's legions retreating from Parthia (Plutarch, Antony 45; Cassius Dio 49,30) over a century later, when they came under attack by enemy horse-archers. Nobody tried to move around, the testudo seems reversed - the front ranks kneel, rather than the rear ranks - and the testudo seems to have included the baggage animals as well.

"Then the shield-bearers wheeled round and enclosed the light-armed troops within their ranks, dropped down to one knee, and held their shields out as a defensive barrier. The men behind them held their shields over the heads of the first rank, while the third rank did the same for the second rank. The resulting shape, which is a remarkable sight, looks very like a roof, and is the surest protection against arrows, which just glance off it." (Plutarch, loc. cit, translation from Wikipedia s.v Testudo Formation).

"This testudo and the way in which it is formed are as follows. The Baggage animals, the light-armed troops, and the cavalry are placed in the center of the army. the heavy-armed troops who use the oblong, curved and cylindrical shields are drawn up around the outside, making a rectangular figure, and, facing outward and holding their arms at the ready, they enclose the rest. the others who have flat shields, form a compact body in the center and raise their shields over the heads of all the others, so that nothing but shields can be seen in every part of the phalanx alike and all the men by the density of the formation are under shelter from missiles. Indeed, it is so marvelously strong that men can walk upon it and whenever they come to a narrow ravine, even horses and vehicles can be driven over it." (Cassius Dio, loc. cit., ibid.)

Here my questions would be as follows:

1) Has there been an evolution in this formation after Heraklion, or is it still (if it ever was) a parade/training formation used under pressure for the military situation - considering Dio still mentions its use for walking on top (though not at shows, it seems)? Would the testudo at Heraklion also have used flat shields, or can one move on a curved one at all?

2) How fast would a trained group - assuming Antony and his troops had put in some training as they knew there were facing archers - take to perform the manoeuver, especially if the entire baggage train was to be included? Would the lighter troops - with the flat shields - already be marching at the centre? If not, how does one avoid confusion when ambushed by fast-moving horse-archers?

Many thanks for any answers and thoughts - on these questions, or on the early testudo in general. Much of what I wrote above is speculative, even if it is not in the form of a question, so addressing that is welcome too.

[M. Caecilius]

Sorry - posted this in the wrong section. Can one of the moderators please move it? I notified the mods.

[Caballo]

A pleasure- done.
Regards
Paul

[M. Caecilius]

Thanks for moving, Paul!

Now it's in the correct subforum, I can hope for more answers

[M. Caecilius]

1) Did I miss any earlier references to a tortoise - as opposed to simply interlocking shields?

I may have answered my own question here. I found in Livy references to the Gauls using a testudo. V.43.2 involves the attack on the Capitol during the Gallic Sack, X.29 describes Sentinum, where the Gauls are quite clearly described as forming a tortoise with their scuta. Only at X.41 does he mention Scipio investing the Samnite town of Aquilonia with a tortoise: here the soldiers are presented as following Scipio's example of holding a shield above their head while attacking.

Earlier on Livy does mention testudines but together with vinea as "oppugnandarum urbium apparatum", so as machines (V.5).

Is this Livy writing with hindsight - assuming any sensible army would form a tortoise to attack a fortress (V.43) or when forced to act defensibly (X.41) - or would the Gauls, usually presented in Roman as well as modern sources as incapable of formation fighting, really have resorted to this? Also, could this mean that the Romans adapted the Tortoise from the Gauls when they changed their army after the Allia disaster?

I'm still interested in opinions on the other questions I asked some time ago, but this bit of information was interesting, too, so I hope I can resurrect this thread.

Thanks!