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Speculative Halberd Formation in the Hellenistic Era
#1
I was working on a story where one side in a battle uses a speculative formation and battle doctrine, in the Hellenistic era. They tend to fight for and against the Diadochi.

This faction has metallurgy similar to India's of the 5th century BC. For this reason, they can make large steel swords, halberds, and high quality steel armor, and this puts them ahead of the Macedonians of the time. In their battles with the Diadochi phalanxes, I thought they might develop a novel formation, based around heavy armor, halberds, and the javelin.

I won't get into their culture or economics for now, but suffice to say they have a very military-focused economy centered around a warrior elite.


Equipment
The Halberdiers.

Primary Weapons
The troops, referred to as the halberdiers, wield a mixture of halberds and large swords (how large is uncertain, just that Indian troops were said to use "two-handed" swords). They normally lack shields (more on those below).

Each warrior would select his own weapon, so there'd be some variety in the designs, with some being more like Dane axes and others more like a bardiche. Each would be about as tall as the man wielding it, so about two meters.

For a secondary weapon, they'd all carry something similar to a falcata, and may carry javelins (more on those later).

Armor
Large and strong men are picked for the role, who can wear over 20kg in armor, similar to field harness of late medieval Europe. The men ride to the battlefield, so they won't be exhausted from a long march. The armor's exact weight would be tricky to pin down, but they would try to wear as much as they can while maintaining their mobility on foot.

Due to cultural appropriation, the armor is probably a mixture of lamellar and maile over the joints. They may even have some laminar in the construction, like the Dendra armor or segmentata.

Shields
They could potentially have a shield to ward off missiles, despite wielding two-handed weapons, and then wear the shields on their backs when entering melee. They no doubt have a sidearm like the falcata, so they could fight with sword and shield if they must. But perhaps they wouldn't carry these shields themselves, but have shield bearers to take some of the weight off of them? They are accompanied by a large contingent of javelin troops, who can act as shield-bearers.

Javelins
They may also carry several javelins with them, as these are important to their role in battle. However, not necessarily, as they're likely to be supported by light javelin troops, typically local allies or mercenaries, who can carry the javelins for them.

If they did carry their own javelins, it's possible they'd use a javelin design similar to the pilum, but I'm not sure if that'd be optimal for these wars against the Diadochi?

Mounts
The halberdiers would have riding horses (could be donkeys) or ride in wagons when on the march. They would use horses in the same manner as dragoons, dismounting to fight after moving to a good position. That would be situational however, as they likely won't have enough spare horses for most engagements.
If they do have horses, their armour can afford to be somewhat heavier.


Tactics

At the start of the battle, the halberdiers tend to be deployed on the flanks or in the center, in front of the regular infantry with the other skirmishers. Sometimes the halberdiers are mounted, but they dismount when fighting.

They stand in loose order, as suits their weapons, and are drilled to form into close ranks if desirable, namely against cavalry.

Skirmishing
There is a supporting contingent of javelin-throwers or other kinds of skirmishers deployed with the halberdiers, who will support them and look to them for protection.

While the primary role of the halberdiers is to challenge the phalanx, their secondary role of the is to act as "heavy skirmishers," who probe for weaknesses in the enemy lines, defeat enemy light and medium troops, and protect their own skirmishers.

Anti-Cavalry
While not as good as a phalanx, the halberdiers  should be quite formidable opponents to cavalry. Their halberds would have spear-points, so they can form square and present a short phalanx against a cavalry charge. Should they survive, their weapons are very fierce in melee, and cavalry would quickly be sent into retreat as men and horse alike were cloven in two.

Just as important is their missile support, of course, which will thin the ranks of cavalry during their charge and during the melee, and will make skirmishing with the halberdiers more costly. With the heavy infantry protecting these skirmishers, the cavalry will be repulsed, harmed, and frustrated in their attacks.

Anti-Phalanx
The great feat of the halberdiers is to face off against the phalanx, to exploit a weakness and cleave into their ranks, causing such chaos that the phalanx collapses into a brawling melee. If it is reduced to this, it is easily for allied cavalry or phalanxes to sweep them from the field.

Their loose order makes them more agile, able to navigate rough terrain and probe for a chance to outflank or exploit a gap, and they are can also retreat quite easily if it's to their advantage. If they successfully flank the enemy, they will cleave into the ranks. During this, their skirmishers will pour missiles into the phalanx, and will also serve as a minor rear guard for the halberdiers.

Often, they see no chance to outflank the enemy, and so they feel obliged to assault the phalanx frontally, in a manner that could be described as, "heavy skirmishing."

Javelin Range
The halberd-men will, if not threatened on their flank, take up their shields and march in loose order to within javelin-range of the phalanx. If the phalanx is armed with javelins, and can be coaxed to spend them all at maximal range, the halberdiers will encourage them to do this, hurling insults and missiles--but always they hurl less javelins than the phalanx, so that many stick out of the ground where the halberdiers stand.

As they are in loose order and well armored, the halberdiers should do well in the skirmishing. They additionally have the support of their own javelin-throwing light troops. These can easily step in and out of the loose halberd formation so as to cast their own javelins and collect those scattered on the ground. Some of the halberdiers would plant their halberds in the earth, taking javelins from their allies and casting them with terrific strength into the enemy line.

Sometimes the halberdiers never progress from this stage of the fighting, possibly acting as a distraction. If the enemy lacks discipline, the halberdiers will try to harass them until they give chase, so they can be lead to rough ground or so as to open a gap in their line, or simply in the hopes that the phalanx might lose cohesion in the pursuit. Sometimes this works, and the halberdiers win quite easily, as with the great Roman victories against the phalanx later in history.

If the phalanx is disciplined enough to ignore the taunting and skirmishing at range, not being pulled into a trap  and not wasting their javelins, the halberds advance to the next stage of the assault:

Spear Range
More properly, the halberds advance to just outside the reach of the phalanx's spears. The boldest of warriors will stride up to within inches of the sarissa, urging the enemy to come and get him as he casts a javelin from this absurdly close range. The halberd men don't worry, as even if they are hit it is likely in the chest or shoulder, the point easiest to reach on a man as it's in line with your own shoulder, and their armor is not easily pierced at these points, nor through their full helmets. When blows glance off them, this frustrates and worries the enemy, who will start to wonder how they can hurt this annoyance.

The skirmishers, meanwhile, may stand several paces back from the halberds, for lack of courage. They wouldn't be too worried, feeling confident in the fact their heavy infantry stand ready with large weapons to defend them, and knowing they can outrun the phalanx if it came to that.

Of course, the phalanx has likely not spent all its javelins, and will graciously return the javelins cast into them. At this closer range, the loose order of the halberdiers will be less effective, and javelins are possibly one of the best weapons for defeating their armor, so there will be some peril. However, I'm not certain the phalanx has a huge quantity of javelins to throw, and overall the halberds and their many light skirmishers should have the advantage in the skirmishing, particularly because the "forest of pikes" shouldn't effectively deflect missiles at such close range. Over time, men will fall and shields will break or become heavy from javelins, and if the Pezhetairos lower their sarissa, trying to stab the halberd men or to deflect the incoming missiles, the warriors will cleave at the pikes with sword and halberd. Any lone phalangites baited into stepping forward outside the protection of the phalanx would of course be cut down, but it is unlikely many would try this.

If the halberdiers do find they are taking losses, or that they've severely antagonized the phalanx, the halberds can pull back to javelin range. They will continue to cycle between the two ranges all day if they have to, waiting to seize an advantage. They may also feign a rout from this position, in hopes of causing the phalanx to pursue and lure it somewhere, or simply harm its cohesion by making it pursue.

Most likely, portions of the phalanx will become frustrated, and charge forward in good order in an attempt to spear their cheeky foes. This is quite acceptable to the halberds, who will generally perform a fighting retreat, continuing the skirmishing with halberd and javelin until an opportunity arises. 

The goal of the halberd-wielders is to reduce the cohesion of the phalanx so much, through losses and broken sarissae and shields and wounds, as to create an opening they can exploit, surging into the melee. When they are getting close to this point, they will attempt to throw javelins in concentrated volleys, make a hole in the phalanx they will then charge into:

Melee Surge
As the phalanx loses cohesion and runs low on javelins, the halberdiers will begin to tighten their formation, gradually--getting ready for the charge.

When they see an opening, the halberdiers will surge into melee, opening the breach with cuts and thrusts as they try to get inside the rows of spears. If they do manage to get past the forest of pikes, the sarissa will become useless, and the phalangites will be forced to draw swords. They will find themselves outmatched compared to the halberd, the two-handed sword, and the heavier armor of their attackers, who are still supported by missiles as their light troops cast a storm of javelins in support. A disciplined and skilled phalanx could still overcome these things, and envelop their attackers or force them back; but even then it is likely their losses will be severe and their cohesion ruined. Enemy hoplites will advance to attack when they see this chaos, each threat preventing the phalanx from properly reacting to the other. Soon, even veteran troops are likely to break and rout when they see they are so trapped.

Of course, not all surges are successful. Sometimes the halberdiers are impatient and careless in their charge, and are immediately repulsed with wounds and losses when they meet a wall of spears. Sometimes only a couple of men can exploit a gap, and their allies can't get through to support them, and these men are either forced to retreat or die where they stand--though sometimes one warrior is enough to open up the phalanx and lead to its destruction.

One of the tricks the halberdiers like involves retreating every time the phalanx advances against them, as if frightened... only to surprise them at the last with a counter-charge instead of a retreat. The officers of the halberdiers recognize the importance of psychology in breaking the phalanx, and so the tactics are often a series of mind games as the halberdiers change between attacking, retreating, and skirmishing, at various ranges, giving the phalanx no peace--unless that also is part of a trick.


Other Notes

Other Skirmishers:
It's not always just javelins that support the halberds. Slingers are good, as they can still carry shields for the close skirmishing. Some of the halberdiers carry slings, and will pelt the phalanx from slightly further back with the other slingers. Slings do require more space to use, though, so javelins are preferred.

Archers can also be used, but their lack of shields forces them to hang back more, or to use the other skirmishers as human shields. Sometimes elite, armored bowmen will join the halberds in this aggressive skirmishing.

Hypaspistai:
This strategy also works with hypaspists, but is less effective, due to the larger shields and more flexible formation of the shield-bearers, as well as the tendency for them to be better trained in armies of the period.

Support
Aside from general skirmishing duty, the halberdiers also work well for general support. They can act as a hammer to an anvil, even if less effective than cavalry.

They are a great addition to any ongoing melee, and will try to give their allies a chance to reform their lines as they keep the enemy in a brawling mob. If they can charge cavalry who are stuck in melee... they will utterly devastate them.

And of course, they make effective guards: for skirmishers, for areas of rough terrain, camps and flags, and for the flanks.

The fact a large part of their formation is light infantry also helps to reduce the cost of these units.

Even if the halberds were ineffective in frontally attacking a phalanx, their ability to challenge all kinds of enemies would make them flexible to a general's needs, and so units of halberds would continue to be trained for these support roles.





That is what I have so far for this fictional anti-phalanx unit I invented for a story, which I hope you found interesting. If there is some way I could improve the plausibility of this concept, please let me know.
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#2
If you look at all the factors that decide the outcome of a battle - numbers, training, supplies, communication, weather, terrain, surprise, commander ability, equipment, tactics, fortification, morale, fatigue, etc. - and list them in order of importance, the difference between the arms of both sides is right down near the bottom.

In any case, the difference between Indian wootz steel arms and the steel arms used by other cultures at the time is functionally indistinguishable. At best a blade would hold an edge a little longer and be a little less likely to bend in battle, and the armour would be a little lighter but provide no additional protection. It would have a negligible influence on the outcome of a battle.
Author: Bronze Age Military Equipment, Pen & Sword Books
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#3
(06-10-2020, 11:40 PM)Dan Howard Wrote: If you look at all the factors that decide the outcome of a battle - numbers, training, supplies, communication, weather, terrain, surprise, commander ability, equipment, tactics, fortification, morale, fatigue, etc. - and list them in order of importance, the difference between the arms of both sides is right down near the bottom.

In any case, the difference between Indian wootz steel arms and the steel arms used by other cultures at the time is functionally indistinguishable. At best a blade would hold an edge a little longer and be a little less likely to bend in battle, and the armour would be a little lighter but provide no additional protection. It would have a negligible influence on the outcome of a battle.
Thanks for replying, Dan.

It's true that equipment is a very small detail for wars and strategy, but for writing these sorts of details are very important as you need to convey the scene.

The details of armor in the period are at the edge of my knowledge. I know Indian steel was prized in the period and well after, where they had a major steel exporting industry, but I don't know what kind of iron armor was common alongside Alexander and the Diadochi. Phillip II had an iron cuirass in his tomb, but it was so thick I wasn't sure if it was ceremonial. Had iron or steel armor already become common?

I had also assumed that iron swords of the period were limited in size in the Mediterranean, with the rhomphia being the largest iron weapon producible, with a blade less than a meter in length. I had thought there might be some advantage in Indian weaponry, for this reason.

Forgive my ignorance, but could you fill me in on these points? I'm lucky to be able to speak with someone who has written a book on the subject.
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#4
Philip's cuirass was so thick because it had completely mineralised. Iron increases in volume as it oxidises.

The La Tene Celts were producing steel longswords since before the Roman period. There is at least one extant example that can be flexed almost double and spring back to its original shape even after being under water for two thousand years. The best book on the subject is Pleiner's "The Celtic Sword".

The mechanical properties of tin-bronze are very similar to unhardened medium carbon steel. There would be little functional difference between bronze and steel armour during that time. Bronze would be superior in some cases.
Author: Bronze Age Military Equipment, Pen & Sword Books
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